{"id":64418,"date":"2025-05-31T14:38:02","date_gmt":"2025-05-31T18:38:02","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/?p=64418"},"modified":"2025-06-11T12:21:38","modified_gmt":"2025-06-11T16:21:38","slug":"understanding-battery-management-systems","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/understanding-battery-management-systems\/","title":{"rendered":"Understanding battery management systems"},"content":{"rendered":"<p class=\"ai-optimize-6 ai-optimize-introduction\">A battery-management system (BMS) is an electronic system or circuit that monitors the charging, discharging, temperature, and other factors influencing the state of a battery or battery pack, with an overall goal of accurately indicating the remaining time available for use. It\u2019s used to monitor and maintain the health and capacity of a battery.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-7\">Today\u2019s BMS devices are advanced and often provide pop-up notifications, as you\u2019ve likely experienced on a laptop or smartphone. At a minimum, these systems should provide:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li class=\"ai-optimize-8\">Voltage monitoring (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.evengineeringonline.com\/what-is-an-ev-battery-state-of-charge-soc\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">state of charge<\/a>)<\/li>\n<li class=\"ai-optimize-9\">Battery life and overall health (state of health)<\/li>\n<li class=\"ai-optimize-10\">Temperature and condition monitoring (safe operating area)<\/li>\n<li class=\"ai-optimize-11\">Charging time<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-12\">A battery-management system might also offer additional features, depending on the application. For example, a BTS display in electric vehicles can report how many miles or kilometers the vehicle can safely run before the next charge.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-13\">In this article, we\u2019ll learn how a battery management system works, including how it calculates and monitors battery life.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-14\"><strong>Understanding a BMS<\/strong><br \/>\nTypically, a BMS receives input from the battery it\u2019s monitoring, processes it in an algorithm, and then generates the output. The output data includes the state of change (SOC), the state of health (SOH), as well as a fault and status signal.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-15\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/BMS-block-diagram.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-64421 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/BMS-block-diagram.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"711\" height=\"343\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/BMS-block-diagram.png 711w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/BMS-block-diagram-300x145.png 300w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/BMS-block-diagram-368x178.png 368w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 711px) 100vw, 711px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-16\">A BMS can be used for a single or multi-cell battery pack. The circuit below shows three cells connected in series, where the BMS measures the overall voltage, as well as the voltage of each cell. It also monitors the current via a shunt current or <a href=\"https:\/\/www.testandmeasurementtips.com\/measuring-the-hall-effect-faq\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Hall effect<\/a> sensor.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-17\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-2.13.01-PM.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-64423 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-2.13.01-PM.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"901\" height=\"470\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-2.13.01-PM.png 901w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-2.13.01-PM-300x156.png 300w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-2.13.01-PM-768x401.png 768w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-2.13.01-PM-368x192.png 368w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 901px) 100vw, 901px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-18\">There are also metal\u2013oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) available, such as charge or discharge-control field-effect transmitters (CFETs and DFETs), which provide integrated charging and discharging capabilities. These MOSFETs provide an added safety advantage, terminating a charge or loads during a faulty condition. In this case, the charger and the load are connected to \u201ccommunicate.\u201d<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-19\"><strong>Safe operating area<br \/>\n<\/strong>A BMS provides for safe and reliable battery use. For instance, it can protect a battery from over or under-temperature conditions and over-charge or over-discharge.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-20\">The operating temperature and voltage should always be in a safe operating area (SOA), which is indicated in the voltage versus temperature graph below. The value in the graph such as this should always follow the BMS manufacturer\u2019s data sheet as different systems are available.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-21\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Safe-Operating-Area.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-64424 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Safe-Operating-Area.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"481\" height=\"371\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Safe-Operating-Area.png 481w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Safe-Operating-Area-300x231.png 300w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Safe-Operating-Area-309x238.png 309w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Safe-Operating-Area-216x168.png 216w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 481px) 100vw, 481px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-22\">This is an over-temperature condition if the battery\u2019s temperature exceeds the SOA due to excessively warm or hot conditions. It is considered hazardous as it can melt the cells and circuits. A plastic battery case typically softens at around 200 F and melts above 300 F. In extreme cases, the battery can also melt or explode.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-23\">Much like heat speeds up chemical reactions, cold temperatures slow them down. An under-temperature condition can be caused by cold or freezing temperatures, which can also affect the battery and its ability to provide power.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-24\">A voltage exceeding its ideal state limits and rising above the SOA is an overcharge, damaging the battery and leaving it functionless. When the voltage drops below its state limit, it\u2019s considered an under-charge. All four conditions can damage the battery or may be dangerous.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-25\">A reliable BMS monitors each cell in the circuit and offers protection by terminating the battery\u2019s charge if it surpasses any of the ideal states.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-26\"><strong>State of health<br \/>\n<\/strong>The state of health (SOH) refers to a battery\u2019s capacity or current condition compared to its ideal state. SOH helps to determine the percent of battery life available or remaining.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-27\">In the below graph, the battery\u2019s capacity decreases over the charging or discharging cycle.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-28\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-2.42.45-PM.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-64427 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-2.42.45-PM.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"715\" height=\"532\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-2.42.45-PM.png 715w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-2.42.45-PM-300x223.png 300w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-2.42.45-PM-320x238.png 320w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 715px) 100vw, 715px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-29\"><strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">How is the SOH determined?<br \/>\n<\/span><\/strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">The parameters that change with the age of a battery \u2014 such as impedance or conductance \u2014 can be used to determine the SOH of a cell. When such parameters increase, battery performance decreases while its temperature increases. I<\/span><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">mpedance measures a circuit\u2019s opposition to a current when a voltage is applied. Conductance is the degree to which an object conducts electricity, calculated as the current ratio.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-30\"><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">To measure the SOH, it\u2019s necessary to record the initial impedance or conductance, which is typically provided on the manufacturer\u2019s datasheet. To test the impedance or conductance of a battery, apply a small AC voltage of \u201cE\u201d known frequency and amplitude across the cell and measure the in-phase AC current \u201cI\u201d that flows in response to it.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-31\"><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">Where\u2026<br \/>\n<\/span><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">Impedance is Z = E\/I (\u201cE\u201d is the AC voltage across the cell, and \u201cI\u201d is the AC current flowing through the battery)<br \/>\n<\/span><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">Conductance is C = I\/E<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-32\"><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">For example\u2026<br \/>\n<\/span><strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">E<\/span><\/strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"> = 0.0024 V and I = 0.0033 A\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0\u00a0<\/span><strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">Z\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">= 0.0024 \/ 0.0033 = 0.072 ohm<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-33\"><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">The impedance and conductance are inverse to one another, where the impedance increases and the conductance decreases.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-34\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Conductance.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-64426 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Conductance.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"797\" height=\"361\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Conductance.png 797w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Conductance-300x136.png 300w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Conductance-768x348.png 768w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Conductance-368x167.png 368w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 797px) 100vw, 797px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-35\">Now, let\u2019s suppose we received an impedance measuring 70 milliohms, but, at first, it was 50 milliohm.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-36\"><strong>Impedance percentage<\/strong> =(current impedance \/ initial impedance) X 100<br \/>\n= (70\/50) x 100<br \/>\n= 140%<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-37\"><strong>Impedance percentage of increase <\/strong>= impedance percentage &#8211; 100<br \/>\n= 140 &#8211; 100 = 40%<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-38\">The impedance has increased by 40 percent. Now, let\u2019s calculate the SOH.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-39\">The battery has an initial capacity of 1000mAh, and the impedance increased by 40 percent. As a result\u2026<br \/>\n<strong>Capacity lost<\/strong> = (impedance percent \/100) x Total initial capacity<br \/>\n= (40\/100) x 1000 = 400mAh<br \/>\n<strong>SOH<\/strong> = Total initial capacity &#8211; capacity lost<br \/>\n= <strong>600mAh<\/strong><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-40\">The impedance percentage can also measure the temperature. Let\u2019s say the initial percentage is 40 C.<br \/>\n<strong>Current temperature <\/strong>= (impedance percent \/100) x initial temperature + initial temperature<br \/>\n= (40\/100) x 40 + 40<br \/>\n= 56 C<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-41\">In this case, as the impedance increases, the battery&#8217;s temperature increases, as shown in the graph below.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-42\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Temperature.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-64425 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Temperature.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"797\" height=\"361\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Temperature.png 797w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Temperature-300x136.png 300w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Temperature-768x348.png 768w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Measure-SOH-by-Temperature-368x167.png 368w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 797px) 100vw, 797px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-43\"><strong>State of charge<br \/>\n<\/strong>The state of charge (SOC) indicates how much power or energy is left in the battery and is calculated using the remaining battery capacity over the battery&#8217;s total capacity. The state of charge can be indicated in the percentage as follows;<br \/>\nSOC percentage = ( SOH \/ total capacity ) X 100<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-44\"><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">Although this formula provides the SOC as a percentage, it\u2019s not entirely accurate because it fails to factor in the fact that the battery&#8217;s total capacity decreases over time. Eventually, the battery will not achieve a full, 100% charge. The total capacity in the formula, therefore, is the SOH value.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-45\"><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">This equation offers a more accurate result:<br \/>\n<\/span><strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">SOC<\/span><\/strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">\u00a0percentage = ( SOC \/ SOH ) X 100<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-46\"><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">If the initial battery capacity is 1000mAh, but the SOH is now 500mAh, and the remaining capacity is 300mAh, then:<br \/>\n<\/span><strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">SOC\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">percentage = ( 300 \/ 500) X 100 = 60%<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-47\"><strong>How is the SOC determined?<br \/>\n<\/strong>The easiest way to determine the state of charge is by measuring the battery\u2019s charging and discharging voltage. However, this is not the ideal way to measure the capacity because the battery does not have a linear charging or discharging curve. So, not every reading would be accurately represented.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-48\">Consider, for example, a lithium-ion battery&#8217;s charging and discharging curve in the graphs below. The charging and discharging voltage gradually change the battery state until the final discharge remains stable.<\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-49\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Charging-Discharging-voltage-vs-Charging-current.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-64428 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Charging-Discharging-voltage-vs-Charging-current.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"847\" height=\"361\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Charging-Discharging-voltage-vs-Charging-current.png 847w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Charging-Discharging-voltage-vs-Charging-current-300x128.png 300w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Charging-Discharging-voltage-vs-Charging-current-768x327.png 768w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Charging-Discharging-voltage-vs-Charging-current-368x157.png 368w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 847px) 100vw, 847px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-50\"><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">The ideal method for measuring the battery&#8217;s capacity is via Coulomb Counting, which measures the incoming and outgoing currents over time. It accounts for the discharge current over time and subtracts it from the values if the charging current is the same.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-51\"><strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">SOC\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">= Total capacity &#8211; (Discharge current &#8211; Charged current)<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-52\"><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">Several methods are available to measure the discharge or a charge in current, depending on the battery-measurement system. Here are a few:<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-53\"><strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">Current shunt:\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">A shunt is a low-ohm resistor used to measure current and, typically, when the current exceeds the range of the measuring device. The entire current flows through the shunt and generates a voltage drop, which is measured. This method has a slight power loss across the resistor and heats the battery.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-54\"><strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">Hall effect:<\/span><\/strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"> This sensor measures the changing voltage when the device is placed in a magnetic field. It eliminates the power loss problem typical of the current shunt, but it\u2019s costly and unable to tolerate high currents.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-55\"><strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">Giant magnetoresistance (GMR):\u00a0<\/span><\/strong><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">These sensors are used as magnetic-field detectors that are more sensitive (and more expensive) than Hall-effect sensors. They\u2019re incredibly accurate.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-56\"><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\"><strong>Coulomb counting:<\/strong> Coulomb involves measuring the amount of current flowing into or out of the battery. Below is a graph depicting a current measured at different times to determine the total discharge current concerning time.\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-57\"><span data-preserver-spaces=\"true\">The Coulomb measurement is quite complicated but can be done by a microcontroller.<\/span><\/p>\n<p class=\"ai-optimize-58\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-8.49.24-PM.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"aligncenter wp-image-64430 size-full\" src=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-8.49.24-PM.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"864\" height=\"512\" srcset=\"https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-8.49.24-PM.png 864w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-8.49.24-PM-300x178.png 300w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-8.49.24-PM-768x455.png 768w, https:\/\/www.engineersgarage.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/07\/Screen-Shot-2021-07-13-at-8.49.24-PM-368x218.png 368w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 864px) 100vw, 864px\" \/><\/a><\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>A battery-management system (BMS) is an electronic system or circuit that monitors the charging, discharging, temperature, and other factors influencing the state of a battery or battery pack, with an overall goal of accurately indicating the remaining time available for use. It\u2019s used to monitor and maintain the health and capacity of a battery. Today\u2019s&hellip;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":409,"featured_media":64435,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_acf_changed":false,"_genesis_hide_title":false,"_genesis_hide_breadcrumbs":false,"_genesis_hide_singular_image":false,"_genesis_hide_footer_widgets":false,"_genesis_custom_body_class":"","_genesis_custom_post_class":"","_genesis_layout":"","footnotes":""},"categories":[2194,3963,9],"tags":[2161,2240,2241,2244,2243,2242,2245],"class_list":{"2":"type-post","17":"entry","18":"has-post-thumbnail"},"acf":[],"yoast_head":"<!-- This site is optimized with the Yoast SEO Premium plugin v25.2 (Yoast SEO v25.2) - https:\/\/yoast.com\/wordpress\/plugins\/seo\/ -->\n<title>Understanding battery management systems<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"(BMS) is an electronic system that monitors the charging, discharging, temperature, and other factors influencing the state of a battery.\" \/>\n<meta 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